An uncovering, a bringing to light of that which had been previously wholly hidden or only obscurely seen. God has been pleased in various ways and at different times #Heb 1:1 to make a supernatural revelation of himself and his purposes and plans, which, under the guidance of his Spirit, has been committed to writing. The Scriptures are not merely the "record" of revelation; they are the revelation itself in a written form, in order to the accurate presevation and propagation of the truth. Revelation and inspiration differ. Revelation is the supernatural communication of truth to the mind; inspiration (q.v.) secures to the teacher or writer infallibility in communicating that truth to others. It renders its subject the spokesman or prophet of God in such a sense that everything he asserts to be true, whether fact or doctrine or moral principle, is true, infallibly true.

The second advent of Christ. Three different Greek words are used by the apostles to express this,

1. apokalupsis #1Co 1:7 14:6,26 2Th 1:7 1Pe 1:7,13 Re 1:1

2. parousia #Mt 24:3,27 1Th 2:19 Jas 5:7,8

3. epiphaneia #1Ti 6:14 2Ti 1:10 4:1-8 Ti 2:13 There existed among Christians a wide expectation, founded on #Mt 24:29,30,34 of the speedy return of Christ.

1. = The Apocalypse, the closing book and the only prophetical book of the New Testament canon. The author of this book was undoubtedly John the apostle. His name occurs four times in the book itself #Re 1:1,4,9 22:8 and there is every reason to conclude that the "John" here mentioned was the apostle. In a manuscript of about the twelfth century he is called "John the divine," but no reason can be assigned for this appellation.

2. The date of the writing of this book has generally been fixed at A.D. 96 in the reign of Domitian. There are some, however, who contend for an earlier date, A.D. 68 or 69 in the reign of Nero. Those who are in favour of the later date appeal to the testimony of the Christian father Irenaeus, who received information relative to this book from those who had seen John face to face. He says that the Apocalypse "was seen no long time ago."

3. As to the relation between this book and the Gospel of John, it has been well observed that "the leading ideas of both are the same. The one gives us in a magnificent vision, the other in a great historic drama, the supreme conflict between good and evil and its issue. In both Jesus Christ is the central figure, whose victory through defeat is the issue of the conflict. In both the Jewish dispensation is the preparation for the gospel, and the warfare and triumph of the Christ is described in language saturated with the Old Testament. The difference of date will go a long way toward explaining the difference of style." Plummer’s

(Apokaluqiv Iwannou: Apocalypsis Beati Joannis Apostoli). The following subjects in connection with this book seem to have the chief claim for a place in this article:—

A. Canonical Authority and Authorship.

B. Time and Place of Writing.

C. Language.

D. Contents and Structure.

E. History of Interpretation.

D. Contents.—The first three verses contain the title of the book, the description of the writer, and the blessing pronounced on the readers, which possibly, like the last two verses of the fourth Gospel, may be an addition by the hand of inspired survivors of the writer. John begins (i. 4) with a salutation of the Seven Churches of Asia. This, coming before the announcement that he was in the Spirit, looks like a dedication not merely of the first vision, but of all the book, to those churches. In the next five verses (i. 5-9) he touches the key-note of the whole following book, the great fundamental ideas on which all our notions of the government of the world and the Church are built; the Person of Christ, the redemption wrought by Him, his second coming to judge mankind, the painful hopeful discipline of Christians in the midst of this present world: thoughts which may well be supposed to have been uppermost in the mind of the persecuted and exiled Apostle even before the Divine Inspiration came on him.

a. The first vision (i. 7-iii. 22) shows the Son of Man with his injunction, or Epistles to the Seven Churches. While the Apostle is pondering those great truths and the critical condition of his Church which he had left, a Divine Person resembling those seen by Ezekiel and Daniel, and identified by name and by description as Jesus, appears to John, and with the discriminating authority of a Lord and Judge reviews the state of those churches, pronounces his decision upon their several characters, and takes occasion from them to speak to all Christians who may deserve similar encouragement or similar condemnation. Each of these sentences, spoken by the Son of Man, is described as said by the Spirit. Hitherto the Apostle has been speaking primarily, though not exclusively, to some of his own contemporaries concerning the present events and circumstances. Henceforth he ceases to address them particularly. His words are for the ear of the universal Church in all ages, and show the significance of things which are present in hope or fear, in sorrow or in joy, to Christians everywhere.

b. (iv. 1-viii. 1). In the next vision, Patmos and the Divine Person whom he saw are gone. Only the trumpet voice is heard again calling him to a change of place. He is in the highest court of heaven, and sees God sitting on his throne. The seven-sealed book or roll is produced, and the slain Lamb, the Redeemer, receives it amid the sound of universal adoration. As the seals are opened in order, the Apostle sees
(1) a conqueror on a white horse,
(2) a red horse betokening war,
(3) the black horse of famine,
(4) the pale horse of death,
(5) the eager souls of martyrs under the altar,
(6) an earthquake with universal commotion and terror. After this there is a pause, the course of avenging angels is checked while 144,000, the children of Israel, servants of God, are sealed, and an innumerable multitude of the redeemed of all nations are seen worshipping God. Next (7) the seventh seal is opened, and half an hour’s silence in heaven ensues.

c. Then (viii. 2-xi. 19) seven angels appear with trumpets, the prayers of saints are offered up, the earth is struck with fire from the altar, and the seven trumpets are sounded.
(1) The earth and
(2) the sea and
(3) the springs of water and
(4) the heavenly bodies are successively smitten,
(5) a plague of locusts afflicts the men who are not sealed (the first woe), (6) the third part of men are slain (the second woe), but the rest are impenitent. Then there is a pause: a mighty angel with a book appears and cries out, seven thunders sound, but their words are not recorded, the approaching completion of the mystery of God is announced, the angel bids the Apostle eat the book, and measure the Temple with its worshippers and the outer court given up to the Gentiles; the two witnesses of God, their martyrdom, resurrection, ascension, are foretold. The approach of the third woe is announced and
(7) the seventh trumpet is sounded, the reign of Christ is proclaimed, God has taken his great power, the time has come for judgment and for the destruction of the destroyers of the earth.

The three preceding visions are distinct from one another. Each of the last two, like the longer one which follows, has the appearance of a distinct prophecy, reaching from the prophet’s time to the end of the world.

The second half of the Revelation (xii.-xxii.) comprises a series of visions which are connected by various links. It may be described generally as a prophecy of the assaults of the devil and his agents (= the dragon, the ten-horned beast, the two-horned beast or false prophet and the harlot) upon the Church, and their final destruction. It appears to begin with a reference to events anterior, not only to those which are predicted in the preceding chapter, but also to the time in which it was written. It seems hard to interpret the birth of the child as a prediction, and not as a retrospective allusion.

d. A woman (xii.) clothed with the sun is seen in heaven, and a great red dragon with seven crowned heads stands waiting to devour her offspring; her child is caught up unto God, and the mother flees into the wilderness for 1260 days. The persecution of the woman and her seed on earth by the dragon, is described as the consequence of a war in heaven in which the dragon was overcome and cast out upon the earth.

John (xiii.) standing on the sea-shore sees a beast with seven heads, one wounded, with ten crowned horns, rising from the water, the representative of the dragon. All the world wonder at and worship him, and he attacks the saints and prevails. He is followed by another two-horned beast rising out of the earth, who compels men to wear the mark of the beast, whose number is 666.

John (xiv.) sees the Lamb with 144,000 standing on Mount Zion learning the song of praise of the heavenly host. Three angels fly forth calling men to worship God, proclaiming the fall of Babylon, denouncing the worshippers of the beast. A blessing is pronounced on the faithful dead, and the judgment of the world is described under the image of a harvest reaped by angels.

John (xv., xvi.) sees in heaven the saints who had overcome the beast, singing the song of Moses and the Lamb. Then seven angels come out of the heavenly temple having seven vials of wrath which they pour out upon the earth, sea, rivers, sun, the seat of the beast, Euphrates,

and the air, after which there is a great earthquake and a hailstorm.

One (xvii., xviii.) of the last seven angels carries St. John into the wilderness and shows him a harlot, Babylon, sitting on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns. She is explained to be that great city, sitting upon seven mountains, reigning over the kings of the earth. Afterwards St. John sees a vision of the destruction of Babylon, portrayed as the burning of a great city amid the lamentations of worldly men and the rejoicing of saints.

Afterwards (xix.) the worshippers in heaven are heard celebrating Babylon’s fall and the approaching marriage-supper of the Lamb. The Word of God is seen going forth to war at the head of the heavenly armies: the beast and his false prophet are taken and cast into the burning lake, and their worshippers are slain.

An angel (xx.-xxii. 5) binds the dragon, i. e. the devil, for 1000 years, whilst the martyred saints who had not worshipped the beast reign with Christ. Then the devil is unloosed, gathers a host against the camp of the saints, but is overcome by fire from heaven, and is cast into the burning lake with the beast and false prophet. St. John then witnesses the process of the final judgment, and sees and describes the new heaven and the new earth, and the new Jerusalem, with its people and their way of life.

In the last sixteen verses (xxii. 6-21) the angel solemnly asseverates the truthfulness and importance of the foregoing sayings, pronounces a blessing on those who keep them exactly, gives warning of his speedy coming to judgment, and of the nearness of the time when these prophecies shall be fulfilled.

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E. Interpretation.—A short account of the different directions in which attempts have been made to interpret the Revelation, is all that can be given in this place. The special blessing promised to the reader of this book (i. 3), the assistance to common Christian experience afforded by its precepts and by some of its visions, the striking imagery of others, the tempting field which it supplies for intellectual exercise, will always attract students to this book and secure for it the labors of many commentators. Ebrard reckons that not less than eighty systematic commentaries are worthy of note, and states that the less valuable writings on this inexhaustible subject are unnumbered, if not innumerable. Fanaticism, theological hatred, and vain curiosity, may have largely influenced their composition; but any one who will compare the necessarily inadequate, and sometimes erroneous, exposition of early times with a good modern commentary will see that the pious ingenuity of so many centuries has not been exerted quite in vain.

The interval between the Apostolic age and that of Constantine has been called the Chiliastic period of Apocalyptic interpretation. The visions of St. John were chiefly regarded as representations of general Christian truths, scarcely yet embodied in actual facts, for the most part to be exemplified or fulfilled in the reign of Antichrist, the coming of Christ, the millennium, and the day of judgment. The fresh hopes of the early Christians, and the severe persecution they endured, taught them to live in those future events with intense satisfaction and comfort. They did not entertain the thought of building up a definite consecutive chronological scheme even of those symbols which some moderns regard as then already fulfilled; although from the beginning a connection between Rome and Antichrist was universally allowed, and parts of the Revelation were regarded as the filling-up of the great outline sketched by Daniel and St. Paul.

a. The Historical or Continuous expositors, in whose opinion the Revelation is a progressive history of the fortunes of the Church from the first century to the end of time. The chief supporters of this most interesting interpretation are Mede, Sir I. Newton, Vitringa, Bengel, Woodhouse, Faber, E. B. Elliott, Wordsworth, Hengstenberg, Ebrard, and others. The recent commentary of Dean Alford belongs mainly to this school.

b. The Praeterist expositors, who are of opinion that the Revelation has been almost, or altogether, fulfilled in the time which has passed since it was written; that it refers principally to the triumph of Christianity over Judaism and Paganism, signalized in the downfall of Jerusalem and of Rome. The most eminent expounders of this view are Alcasar, Grotius, Hammond, Bossuet, Calmet, Wetstein, Eichhorn, Hug, Herder, Ewald, Lucke, De Wette, Dusterdieck, Stuart, Lee, and Maurice. This is the favorite interpretation with the critics of Germany, one of whom goes so far as to state that the writer of the Revelation promised the fulfillment of his visions within the space of three years and a half from the time in which he wrote.

c. The Futurist expositors, whose views show a strong reaction against some extravagancies of the two preceding schools. They believe that the whole book, excepting perhaps the first three chapters, refers principally, if not exclusively, to events which are yet to come. This view, which is asserted to be merely a revival of the primitive interpretation, has been advocated in recent times by Dr. J. H. Todd, Dr. S. R. Maitland, B. Newton, C. Maitland, I. Williams, De Burgh, and others.

Each of these three schemes is open to objection.
Against the Futurist it is argued, that it is not consistent with the repeated declarations of a speedy fulfillment at the beginning and end of the book itself (see ch. i. 3, xxii. 6, 7, 12, 20). Christians, to whom it was originally addressed, would have derived no special comfort from it, had its fulfillment been altogether deferred for so many centuries. The rigidly literal interpretation of Babylon, the Jewish tribes, and other symbols which generally forms a part of Futurist schemes, presents peculiar difficulties.

Against the Praeterist expositors it is urged, that prophecies fulfilled ought to be rendered so perspicuous to the general sense of the Church as to supply an argument against infidelity; that the destruction of Jerusalem, having occurred twenty-five years previously, could not occupy a large space in a prophecy; that the supposed predictions of the downfalls of Jerusalem and of Nero appear from the context to refer to one event, but are by this scheme separated, and, moreover, placed in a wrong order; that the measuring of the temple and the altar, and the death of the two witnesses (ch. xi.), cannot be explained consistently with the context.

Against the Historical scheme it is urged, that its advocates differ very widely among themselves; that they assume without any authority that the 1260 days are so many years; that several of its applications- -e. g. of the symbol of the ten-horned beast to the Popes, and the sixth seal to the conversion of Constantine—are inconsistent with the context; that attempts by some of this school to predict future events by the help of Revelation have ended in repeated failures.

In conclusion, it may be stated that two methods have been proposed by which the student of the Revelation may escape the incongruities and fallacies of the different interpretations, whilst he may derive edification from whatever truth they contain. It has been suggested that the book may be regarded as a prophetic poem, dealing in general and inexact descriptions, much of which may be set down as poetic imagery, mere embellishment. But such a view would be difficult to reconcile with the belief that the book is an inspired prophecy. A better suggestion is made, or rather is revived, by Dr. Arnold in his Sermons On the Interpretation of Prophecy: that we should bear in mind that predictions have a lower historical sense, as well as a higher spiritual sense; that there may be one or more than one typical, imperfect, historical fulfillment of a prophecy, in each of which the higher spiritual fulfillment is shadowed forth more or less distinctly. Mr. Elliott, in his Horae Apocalypticae, iv. 622, argues against this principle; but perhaps not successfully. The recognition of it would pave the way for the acceptance in a modified sense of many of the interpretations of the Historical school, and would not exclude the most valuable portions of the other schemes. W. T. B.

The capital of proconsular Asia, which was the western part of Asia Minor. It was colonized principally from Athens. In the time of the Romans it bore the title of "the first and greatest metropolis of Asia." It was distinguished for the Temple of Diana (q.v.), who there had her chief shrine; and for its theatre, which was the largest in the world, capable of containing 50,000 spectators. It was, like all ancient theatres, open to the sky. Here were exhibited the fights of wild beasts and of men with beasts. (Comp.) #1Co 4:9 9:24,25 15:32 Many Jews took up their residence in this city, and here the seeds of the gospel were sown immediately after Pentecost #Ac 2:9 6:9 At the close of his second missionary journey (about A.D. 51) when Paul was returning from Greece to Syria #Ac 18:18-21 he first visited this city. He remained, however, for only a short time, as he was hastening to keep the feast, probably of Pentecost, at Jerusalem; but he left Aquila and Priscilla behind him to carry on the work of spreading the gospel. During his third missionary journey Paul reached Ephesus from the "upper coasts" #Ac 19:1 i.e., from the inland parts of Asia Minor, and tarried here for about three years; and so successful and abundant were his labours that "all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks" #Ac 19:10 Probably during this period the seven churches of the Apocalypse were founded, not by Paul’s personal labours, but by missionaries whom he may have sent out from Ephesus, and by the influence of converts returning to their homes. On his return from his journey, Paul touched at Miletus, some 30 miles south of Ephesus #Ac 20:15 and sending for the presbyters of Ephesus to meet him there, he delivered to them that touching farewell charge which is recorded in #Ac 20:18-35 Ephesus is not again mentioned till near the close of Paul’s life, when he writes to Timothy exhorting him to "abide still at Ephesus" #1Ti 1:3 Two of Paul’s companions, Trophimus and Tychicus, were probably natives of Ephesus #Ac 20:4 21:29 #2Ti 4:12 In his second epistle to Timothy, Paul speaks of Onesiphorus as having served him in many things at Ephesus #2Ti 1:18 He also "sent Tychicus to Ephesus" #2Ti 4:12 probably to attend to the interests of the church there. Ephesus is twice mentioned in the Apocalypse #Re 1:11 2:1 The apostle John, according to tradition, spent many years in Ephesus, where he died and was buried. A part of the site of this once famous city is now occupied by a small Turkish village, Ayasaluk, which is regarded as a corruption of the two Greek words, hagios theologos; i.e., "the holy divine."

-- Revelation 2:1-7
1 "To the angel {1 Or <messenger>; also in verses 8, 12 and 18} of the church in Ephesus write: These are the words of him who holds the seven stars in his right hand and walks among the seven golden lampstands:
2 I know your deeds, your hard work and your perseverance. I know that you cannot tolerate wicked men, that you have tested those who claim to be apostles but are not, and have found them false.
3 You have persevered and have endured hardships for my name, and have not grown weary.
4 Yet I hold this against you: You have forsaken your first love.
5 Remember the height from which you have fallen! Repent and do the things you did at first. If you do not repent, I will come to you and remove your lampstand from its place.
6 But you have this in your favor: You hate the practices of the Nicolaitans, which I also hate.
7 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To him who overcomes, I will give the right to eat from the tree of life, which is in the paradise of God.

Myrrh, an ancient city of Ionia, on the western coast of Asia Minor, about 40 miles to the north of Ephesus. It is now the chief city of Anatolia, having a mixed population of about 200 of whom about one-third are professed Christians. The church founded here was one of the seven addressed by our Lord #Re 2:8-11 The celebrated Polycarp, a pupil of the apostle John, was in the second century a prominent leader in the church of Smyrna. Here he suffered martyrdom, A.D. 155

-- Revelation 2:8-11
8 "To the angel of the church in Smyrna write: These are the words of him who is the First and the Last, who died and came to life again.
9 I know your afflictions and your poverty— yet you are rich! I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan.
10 Do not be afraid of what you are about to suffer. I tell you, the devil will put some of you in prison to test you, and you will suffer persecution for ten days. Be faithful, even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life.
11 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. He who overcomes will not be hurt at all by the second death.

-- Revelation 2:12-17
12 "To the angel of the church in Pergamum write: These are the words of him who has the sharp, double-edged sword.
13 I know where you live— where Satan has his throne. Yet you remain true to my name. You did not renounce your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful witness, who was put to death in your city— where Satan lives.
14 Nevertheless, I have a few things against you: You have people there who hold to the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to entice the Israelites to sin by eating food sacrificed to idols and by committing sexual immorality.
15 Likewise you also have those who hold to the teaching of the Nicolaitans.
16 Repent therefore! Otherwise, I will soon come to you and will fight against them with the sword of my mouth.
17 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To him who overcomes, I will give some of the hidden manna. I will also give him a white stone with a new name written on it, known only to him who receives it.

A city of Asia Minor, on the borders of Lydia and Mysia. Its modern name is Ak-hissar, i.e., "white castle." Here was one of the seven churches #Re 1:11 2:18-28 Lydia, the seller of purple, or rather of cloth dyed with this colour, was from this city #Ac 16:14 It was and still is famous for its dyeing. Among the ruins, inscriptions have been found relating to the guild of dyers in that city in ancient times.

-- Revelation 2:18-29
18  "To the angel of the church in Thyatira write: These are the words of the Son of God, whose eyes are like blazing fire and whose feet are like burnished bronze.
19 I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first.
20 Nevertheless, I have this against you: You tolerate that woman Jezebel, who calls herself a prophetess. By her teaching she misleads my servants into sexual immorality and the eating of food sacrificed to idols.
21 I have given her time to repent of her immorality, but she is unwilling.
22 So I will cast her on a bed of suffering, and I will make those who commit adultery with her suffer intensely, unless they repent of her ways.
23 I will strike her children dead. Then all the churches will know that I am he who searches hearts and minds, and I will repay each of you according to your deeds.
24 Now I say to the rest of you in Thyatira, to you who do not hold to her teaching and have not learned Satan’s so-called deep secrets (I will not impose any other burden on you):
25 Only hold on to what you have until I come.
26 To him who overcomes and does my will to the end, I will give authority over the nations—
27 ‘He will rule them with an iron scepter; he will dash them to pieces like pottery’ {27 Psalm 2:9} —just as I have received authority from my Father.
28 I will also give him the morning star.
29 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

The metropolis of Lydia in Asia Minor. It stood on the river Pactolus, at the foot of mount Tmolus. Here was one of the seven Asiatic churches #Re 3:1-6 It is now a ruin called Sert-Kalessi.

-- Revelation 3:1-6
1 "To the angel {1 Or <messenger>; also in verses 7 and 14} of the church in Sardis write: These are the words of him who holds the seven spirits {1 Or <the sevenfold Spirit>} of God and the seven stars. I know your deeds; you have a reputation of being alive, but you are dead.
2 Wake up! Strengthen what remains and is about to die, for I have not found your deeds complete in the sight of my God.
3 Remember, therefore, what you have received and heard; obey it, and repent. But if you do not wake up, I will come like a thief, and you will not know at what time I will come to you.
4 Yet you have a few people in Sardis who have not soiled their clothes. They will walk with me, dressed in white, for they are worthy.
5 He who overcomes will, like them, be dressed in white. I will never blot out his name from the book of life, but will acknowledge his name before my Father and his angels.
6 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

Brotherly love, a city of Lydia in Asia Minor, about 25 miles south-east of Sardis. It was the seat of one of the "seven churches" #Re 3:7-12 It came into the possession of the Turks in A.D. 1392 It has several times been nearly destroyed by earthquakes. It is still a town of considerable size, called Allahshehr, "the city of God."

-- Revelation 3:7-13
7 "To the angel of the church in Philadelphia write: These are the words of him who is holy and true, who holds the key of David. What he opens no one can shut, and what he shuts no one can open.
8 I know your deeds. See, I have placed before you an open door that no one can shut. I know that you have little strength, yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name.
9 I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars— I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you.
10 Since you have kept my command to endure patiently, I will also keep you from the hour of trial that is going to come upon the whole world to test those who live on the earth.
11 I am coming soon. Hold on to what you have, so that no one will take your crown.
12 Him who overcomes I will make a pillar in the temple of my God. Never again will he leave it. I will write on him the name of my God and the name of the city of my God, the new Jerusalem, which is coming down out of heaven from my God; and I will also write on him my new name.
13 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.

Laodicea

The city of this name mentioned in Scripture lay on the confines of Phrygia and Lydia, about 40 miles east of Ephesus #Re 3:14 on the banks of the Lycus. It was originally called Diospolis and then Rhoas, but afterwards Laodicea, from Laodice, the wife of Antiochus II., king of Syria, who rebuilt it. It was one of the most important and flourishing cities of Asia Minor. At a very early period it became one of the chief seats of Christianity #Col 2:1 4:15 Re 1:11 etc. It is now a deserted place, called by the Turks Eski-hissar or "old castle."

-- Revelation 3:14-22
14 "To the angel of the church in Laodicea write: These are the words of the Amen, the faithful and true witness, the ruler of God’s creation.
15 I know your deeds, that you are neither cold nor hot. I wish you were either one or the other!
16 So, because you are lukewarm— neither hot nor cold— I am about to spit you out of my mouth.
17 You say, ‘I am rich; I have acquired wealth and do not need a thing.’ But you do not realize that you are wretched, pitiful, poor, blind and naked.
18 I counsel you to buy from me gold refined in the fire, so you can become rich; and white clothes to wear, so you can cover your shameful nakedness; and salve to put on your eyes, so you can see.
19 Those whom I love I rebuke and discipline. So be earnest, and repent.
20 Here I am! I stand at the door and knock. If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I will come in and eat with him, and he with me.
21 To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne.
22 He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches."

Contents:
     Geography and History
     Coastal Cities
     Cities of the Interior
     Cities of Eastern Asia Minor

ASIA MINOR, CITIES OF 
The cities located on the Anatolian peninsula (modern-day Turkey). Cities of Asia Minor important to the New Testament accounts included Alexandria Troas, Assos, Ephesus, Miletus, Patara, Smyrna, Pergamum, Sardis, Thyatira, Philadelphia, Laodicea, Colossae, Attalia, Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, and Tarsus. The cities figured prominently in the apostle Paul’s missionary journeys, several of the churches receiving epistles. Among the list are the "Seven Cities" of the Revelation.

Geography and History

The geography of Asia Minor greatly influenced the development of settlements in the area. The region can be described as the point where "East meets West," linking the continent of Europe with the Near East. The peninsula is a high plateau surrounded by steep mountain ranges. The mountains isolate Asia Minor from much of the outside world. Narrow passes through the mountains connect the interior with the Near East. Deep ravines cut by numerous and often navigable rivers linked the cities of the plateau with the western coastline. Cities developed in locales vital to trade and commerce, such as near the mouths of rivers and mountain passes.

The history of Asia Minor reflects the region’s unstable position between the east and west. The Hittite Empire thrived in the eastern portion of the peninsula during the second millennium B.C. (before 1000). Exposed on the west to the Aegean Sea, the coastal area became the home to numerous Greek colonies beginning after 1200 B.C. Centered in Sardis, the Lydian Empire began to expand about 600 B.C., but the Persians soon conquered the area. Control passed to Alexander the Great during the fourth century, and upon his death Asia Minor fell under the rule of the Seluccids.

Beginning about 200 B.C. Roman control of the peninsula increased until all of Anatolia was absorbed into the Roman provincial system. At this time, "Asia" designated the provinces of only western Anatolia. Galatia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia comprised the eastern provinces, while Bithynia and Pontus bordered the Black Sea to the north. The Anatolian peninsula was probably first termed "Asia Minor" during the fifth century A.D.

Coastal Cities

The name Troas described both the northwest region of Asia Minor as well as the port city.   Located 10 miles south of the site of ancient Troy, Alexandria Troas was founded as a Roman colony during the period of Augustus and served as a primary port for trade passing between Asia Minor and Macedonia. Remains of the ruined city wall and a bath complex of the second century A.D. are still visible. As with many ancient ports, the once busy harbor silted up and became unusable. Paul set sail from Troas to Greece in response to his vision of the "Macedonian man" (Acts 16:8). On his third journey, Paul’s companions embarked on a ship sailing toward the port of Assos, 20 miles south (Acts 20:13-14). A bustling port city surrounded by a wall dating to the fourth century B.C., Assos’ temple of Athena sat high on the acropolis overlooking the harbor. At Assos, Paul joined the ship carrying Luke and several others after journeying on foot from Troas.

Ephesus served as the primary trading center of all Asia Minor. The large port facility provided ample anchorage for ships carrying goods east from Greece and Italy, as well as for those which took to Rome the wares brought overland from Asia and the Far East. A well-laid road linked the port facilities at Ephesus with Tarsus to the east. The road approached the city from the southeast, entering a monumental gateway near the public baths. Remains of the city’s immense theater, capable of seating 24,000 spectators, stand today as a reminder of the great crowd which, in protest to Paul, filled the seats and for several hours shouted, "Great is Diana of the Ephesians!" (Acts 19:34). The city’s temple honoring Diana was one of the Seven Wonders of the world. Known as the Artemision to the Greeks, the temple possessed 127 pillars, each 60 feet high, which held up the roof of the largest all-marble structure in the Hellenistic world. The city’s harbor, built around the outlet of the Cayster River, gradually filled with silt; and the site now lies some six miles away from the sea. As the chief port and city of Asia, Paul’s choice of Ephesus as a center of ministry provided the perfect base from which the gospel could be spread throughout the Roman world.

During the early period of Greek colonization, Miletus exercised extensive control over southwestern Anatolia. As a major sea power, the city remained independent throughout the time of Lydian rule in the region. The city was able to withstand attempted incursions by the Persians until 494 B.C. Once a wealthy port for the wool industry, Miletus was a city of little significance during the New Testament era (Acts 20:15).

Acts 21 recounts how Paul sailed for Tyre from Patara. The city served as a popular port for ships traveling eastward during the early autumn months when favorable winds made travel to Egypt and the Phoenician coast easier. The harbor sat near the outlet of the Xanthus River and was the main shipping facility of provincial Lydia.

Smyrna surrounded a well protected harbor on the Aegean coast at the outlet of the Hermus River. Extensive trade into and out of Asia passed through the city. During the first century A.D. Smyrna reigned as one of the grandest cities of all Asia. A large temple dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius boasted the close alliance of the city with the Empire. Numerous other temples dedicated to a wide range of Roman deities as well as scores of beautifully adorned public buildings decorated the city.

Cities of the Interior

Located 15 miles inland overlooking the Caicus River, Pergamum contained the first temple in Asia dedicated to a Roman Emperor, Augustus, in 29 B.C. The city possessed a commanding position on a hill high above the valley. Located on the Upper Acropolis were a large theater, library, agora, palace, barracks, and altar of Zeus. The larger altar area may be that referred to by John as the "throne of Satan" (Rev. 2:13). The city was well-known as a center of worship for the gods Asklepios, Zeus, Demeter and Persephone, Serapis, Isis, as well as the cult of the emperor.

The greatest city in Lydia, Sardis is remembered as the first municipality to mint coins of silver and gold. Set in the fertile Hermus valley, Sardis served as the capital of the Lydian king Croesus, a name synonymous with wealth. The city fell to the Persian armies of Cyrus in 549 B.C. and to the Romans in 188 B.C. A tremendous earthquake in A.D. 17 struck Sardis, a blow from which it was never fully able to recover.

Following the Hermus River inland from Sardis one reached Philadelphia, the name commemorating the brotherly love between Attalus Philadelphus and Eumenes. Founded during the second century B.C., the city was set amidst vast vineyards and led in the worship of Dionysius. The terrible earthquake of A.D. 17 was followed by dangerous tremors for the next twenty years, each one debilitating the city further. The apostle John’s reference to the giving of a "new name" (Rev. 3:12) may be a wordplay on the proposed dedication of the city as "Neocaesarea" in honor of aid Tiberius sent. Despite the gains by Islam in Asia Minor in later years, Philadelphia maintained a continued Christian witness across the centuries.

Journeying inland from Miletus, a traveller followed the course of the Meander River until it joined the Lycus. In the center of the valley sat Laodicea. Situated along the major east-west trade route, the city prospered greatly. As the chief city of the wealthy province of Phrygia, Laodicea boasted of a large number of banks. In 51 B.C. Cicero recounted how he stopped to cash drafts at one of the city’s banks. The great wealth of Laodicea allowed it to finance its own rebuilding after a destructive earthquake in A.D. 60, refusing help from the Senate of Rome. The city was also known for clothes and carpets woven from the rich, glossy black wool raised in the valley. Laodicea served as home to a medical school renowned for production of collyrium, an eye salve. Revelation makes mention of the riches of the city, admonishing believers to seek instead spiritual gold of eternal worth, and to anoint their eyes with a spiritual salve. John’s description of "white garments" to cover their nakedness contrasts the Laodicean preference for "home-grown" black wool, a symbol of worldly prosperity (Rev. 3:14-18).

Eleven miles south of Laodicea lay Colossae. The city was well-known as early as the fifth century B.C. as a commercial center, famous for red-dyed wool. The establishment of Laodicea, however, led to the decline of Colossae’s prosperity. Several remains are still visible, including a small theater on the city’s southeast side. The apostle Paul never personally evangelized the city. Instead, the church was established by Epaphras during Paul’s third missionary journey (Col. 1:7; Col. 1:12-13). Paul wrote to the church during his Roman imprisonment, complementing the work of Philemon and his servant Onesimus (Col. 4:9). A church built in the city during the Byzantine era was ultimately destroyed by Seljuk Turks in A.D. 1070, and the city abandoned.

Cities of Eastern Asia Minor

Much of Paul’s Asian ministry centered around the provinces of Galatia and Lycaonia. On his first journey, Paul and Barnabas most likely arrived by sea at Attalia, a relatively small and unimportant harbor. Moving northward from the port and crossing Pamphylia, the group arrived at Antioch in the province of Galatia. Luke’s "

Antioch of Pisidia" carried the title of Colonia Caesarea Antiocheia, a colony established in 25 B.C. upon a much earlier Hellenistic city. Antioch had been renovated by Rome to provide for the defense of Galatia. A temple to Augustus dominated the central plaza, and the official inscription telling of his victories and of achievements was displayed in the city. Wagons bearing Anatolian marble passed through Antioch on their way to ships at Ephesus to be used in the decoration of the Empire.

Moving southeast from Antioch, Paul and his companions traveled to Iconium. Located in a fertile, well-watered plain, Iconium supplied large amounts of fruit and grain for the surrounding provinces. Several years after Paul’s visit, the Emperor Claudius allowed the town to be renamed Claudiconium in his honor, a reminder of the strong ties it shared with Rome.

Lystra lay twenty miles to the south of Iconium along the Via Sebaste. About 6 B.C. Augustus conferred the title of Julia Felix Gemina Lustra upon this Roman colony. Connected by a fine road with Antioch to the west, the city honored Zeus and Hermes as patron gods. A statue dedicated to the two was discovered in the 1800’s, reminiscent of the city’s identification of Paul and Barnabas with the gods (Acts 14). Timothy was a native of Lystra (Acts 16:1). The ruins of the city are today near the small Turkish town of Katyn Serai.

Derbe was situated sixty miles from Lystra at the present-day site of Kerti Huyuk. Although a large city of Lycaonia, Derbe was relatively unimportant. Paul’s decision to visit the city implies a large Jewish population in the region. It is possible that some believers had already advanced the gospel to Derbe, having been earlier expelled from Iconium.

The boyhood home of the apostle Paul, Tarsus of Cilicia lay on the eastern end of the east-west trade route beginning at Ephesus. At Tarsus, merchants had the option of going south into Syria and Palestine, or continuing across the mountains on to Zeugma and the East. The Cydnus River provided Tarsus with an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, ten miles away. Lumber and linen were the main industries of Tarsus, but the related manufacture of goat’s-hair cloth was practiced by many, including Paul. This skill served as his main source of income wherever he traveled. Tarsus also housed a university and school of philosophy, an academic atmosphere which formed the basis of Paul’s latter rabbinic career.