1. A great diversity of opinion exists as to the authorship of this book. From internal evidence, such as the similarity of sentiment and language to those in the Psalms and Proverbs #Ps 88:1 89:1 the prevalence of the idea of "wisdom," and the style and character of the composition, it is supposed by some to have been written in the time of David and Solomon. Others argue that it was written by Job himself, or by Elihu, or Isaiah, or perhaps more probably by Moses, who was "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and mighty in words and deeds" #Ac 7:22 He had opportunities in Midian for obtaining the knowledge of the facts related. But the authorship is altogether uncertain.

2. As to the character of the book, it is a historical poem, one of the greatest and sublimest poems in all literature. Job was a historical person, and the localities and names were real and not fictious. It is "one of the grandest portions of the inspired Scriptures, a heavenly-repleished storehouse of comfort and instruction, the patriarchal Bible, and a precious monument of primitive theology. It is to the Old Testament what the Epistle to the Romans is to the New." It is a didactic narrative in a dramatic form. This book was apparently well known in the days of Ezekiel, B.C. 600 #Eze 14:14 It formed a part of the sacred Scriptures used by our Lord and his apostles, and is referred to as a part of the inspired Word #Heb 12:5 1Co 3:19

3. The subject of the book is the trial of Job, its occasion, nature, endurance, and issue. It exhibits the harmony of the truths of revelation and the dealings of Providence, which are seen to be at once inscrutable, just, and merciful. It shows the blessedness of the truly pious, even amid sore afflictions, and thus ministers comfort and hope to tried believers of every age. It is a book of manifold instruction, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, and for instruction in righteousness #2Ti 3:16 It consists of:

a. An historical introduction in prose (ch. 1-2)

b. The controversy and its solution, in poetry (ch. 3-42:6) Job’s desponding lamentation (ch. 3) is the occasion of the controversy which is carried on in three courses of dialogues between Job and his three friends.

1. The first course gives the commencement of the controversy (ch. 4)

2. the second the growth of the controversy (15-21) and the third the height of the controversy (22-27).

3. This is followed by the solution of the controversy in the speeches of Elihu and the address of Jehovah, followed by Job’s humble confession #Job 42:1-6 of his own fault and folly.

c. The third division is the historical conclusion, in prose #Job 42:7-15. Sir J. W. Dawson in "The Expositor" says: "It would now seem that the language and theology of the book of Job can be better explained by supposing it to be a portion of Minean [Southern Arabia] literature obtained by Moses in Midian than in any other way. This view also agrees better than any other with its references to natural objects, the art of mining, and other matters."

Persecuted, an Arabian patriarch who resided in the land of Uz (q.v.). While living in the midst of great prosperity, he was suddenly overwhelmed by a series of sore trials that fell upon him. Amid all his sufferings he maintained his integrity. Once more God visited him with the rich tokens of his goodness and even greater prosperity than he had enjoyed before. He survived the period of trial for one hundred and forty years, and died in a good old age, an example to succeeding generations of integrity #Eze 14:14,20 and of submissive patience under the sorest calamities #Jas 5:11 His history, so far as it is known, is recorded in his book.

PSALMS, BOOK OF

Book of PSALMS, A collection of songs of praise that are theological statements and poetically represent human dialogue with God. The Psalms is the most complete collection of Hebrew poetry and worship material in the Hebrew Bible. The Psalms give clues for understanding Israelite worship on both a corporate and individual level. The psalms typify different responses to God’s actions and word.

The Psalms as a collection is found in the third division of the Hebrew canon known as the Writings (Hebrew, ketubim). In its present canonical form, the Psalter has five divisions in the current Hebrew text. These divisions have been compared with the division of the Pentateuch into five books. Each book concludes with a doxology or closing formula. The books follow this division: (1) Psalm 1-41; (2) Psalm 42-71; (3) Psalm 73-89; (4) Psalm 90-106; and (5) Psalm 107-150. Psalm 150 closes off both book five and concludes the collection of psalms; just as Psalm 1 serves as an introduction to the psalter. Other divisions or collections appear in the Psalms. The Elohistic Psalter (Psalm 42-83) regularly uses the Hebrew elohim for the divine name (compare Psalm 14; Psalm 53). The Songs of Ascent or pilgrimage psalms (Psalm 120-134) make a collection. Two different guild collections are included in the Psalms of the sons of Korah (Psalm 42-49) and the Psalms of Asaph (Psalm 73-83). Psalms has been understood as both the "hymnal" and prayerbook of the postexilic congregation of Israel with its final compilation and its inclusion within the canon.

An important key for reading and interpreting different psalms is to understand the nature of Hebrew poetry. Psalms are poetic in contrast to being narrative.

As the twentieth century began, Hermann Gunkel brought a new approach to the Psalms, seeking to discover the type or form of literary material in each Psalm and the worship situation behind each. Gunkel categorized several main types of psalms and understood that not all psalms fit neatly into one category. They might be a combination of types and thus belong to a category of mixed psalms. Following Gunkel, scholars have proposed several systems to categorize the Psalms. Most include the different types: (1) the hymn; (2) songs of thanksgiving; (3) the community laments; (4) the individual laments; (5) the individual songs of thanksgiving; (6) the royal psalms; and (7) wisdom psalms.

Clear-cut categorization is not possible for every psalm, nor does every psalm fit a particular category. Also, every cultic or original life situation is not discernible. The issue for the reader and interpreter of the psalms is to appreciate the artistry of a poet which created and crafted timeless poetic expressions which fit into many contexts of worship or an individual’s life situation in different cultures and traditions.

A reader of the Psalms will find that different psalms can be grouped by similarities of form, content, and pattern. Yet, variations do occur, and each psalm is unique in both message and content. The following is descriptive of the various psalm types.

A lament is expressed both by the community (for example, Psalm 44; Psalm 74; Psalm 79) and by the individual (Psalm 22; Psalm 38; Psalm 39; Psalm 41; Psalm 54). Both types of laments are prayers or cries to God on the occasion of distressful situations. Of the two forms, differences are related to the types of trouble and the experiences of salvation. For the community the trouble may be an enemy; with an individual it may be an illness. The basic pattern includes an invocation of God, a description of the petitioner’s complaint(s), a recalling of past salvation experiences (usually community laments), petitions, a divine response (or oracle), and a concluding vow of praise.

The thanksgiving or psalms of narrative praise are also spoken by the community (see Psalm 106; Psalm 124; Psalm 129) and the individual (see Psalm 9; Psalm 18; Psalm 30). These psalms are related to the laments as they are responses to liberation occurring after distress. They are expressions of joy and are fuller forms of the lament’s vow of praise.

The hymn (see Psalm 8; Psalm 19; Psalm 29) is closest in form to a song of praise as sung in modern forms of worship. These psalms are uniquely liturgical and could be sung antiphonally, some have repeating refrains (see Psalm 8). The hymn normally includes a call to praise. Then the psalm describes the reasons for praising God. The structure is not as clear-cut as other types of psalms. Creation psalms (usually reflecting a mixed form) include Psalm 8; Psalm 19; Psalm 104 and Psalm 139. These psalms are concerned with praising God and describe Him as Creator. Emphasis may be placed on God as Creator of heaven and earth, as Creator of humanity, or as the Creator of different elements of creation. The psalms affirm God who is Creator as the Lord of history.

Some psalms reflect more specific liturgical events. The liturgical psalms may include antiphonal responses or dialogue. There may be exhortations to listeners to prostrate themselves or to walk in a procession. These psalms include instructions for sacrifice, worship, processionals, or may invoke blessings on the worshipers. These are usually regarded as psalms of mixed type as they share similarities with the hymns. This designation includes those psalms which may have been sung by pilgrims on their way to the sanctuary (see the songs of ascents, Psalm 120-134). Songs of Zion (such as 46) call for God’s protection of the city of God. Some psalms are considered royal psalms (see Psalm 2; Psalm 18; Psalm 20). These psalms are concerned with the earthly king of Israel. Again, these are usually understood as mixed psalms. They were used to celebrate the king’s enthronement. They may have included an oracle for the king. In some cases (such as Psalm 72), prayers were made to intercede on behalf of the king. Another mixed type are the enthronement psalms which celebrate Yahweh’s kingship (see Psalm 96-99). They are closely related to the hymns and to the creation psalms. However, the main difference is a celebration of Yahweh as king over all creation.

A final type of psalm (see Psalm 1) is the wisdom psalm. They have poetic form and style but are distinguished because of content and a tendency toward the proverbial. These psalms contemplate questions of theodicy (Psalm 73), or celebrate God’s Word (the Torah, Psalm 119), or deal with two different ways of living—that of the godly person or the evil person (Psalm 1). The psalms are not neatly or easily categorized, as the mixed psalms indicate. However, such identification helps the reader to know that type of psalm is being read, with a possible original context or a fitting present context in worship.

Outline

The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections just as the Pentateuch has five books. Each section of the Book of Psalms concludes with a doxology. See Psalm 41:13; Psalm 72:18-19; Psalm 89:52; Psalm 106:48; Psalm 150.

Psalm 1 introduces the book by dividing people into two categories and describing the fate of each. Psalm 150 closes Psalms with a symphony of praise. Otherwise, a way to describe a theological structure for the book as a whole has not been found. What devoted students of God’s Word have discovered is the limited number of types of prayer represented in the Psalms. A look at the major types helps us understand how many different functions prayer and praise can serve as we communicate with and worship God.

1. Psalms of lamentation or complaint cry out for help in a situation of distress or frustration. Psalmists protest their innocence or confess their sins. They vow to praise God and give thanks for deliverance. Such psalms show prayer as an honest communication with God in life’s worst situations. 
The following psalms are laments: Psalm 3; Psalm 4; Psalm 6; Psalm 7; Psalm 12; Psalm 13; Psalm 17; Psalm 22; Psalm 25; Psalm 26; Psalm 28; Psalm 35; Psalm 38; Psalm 39; Psalm 40; Psalm 41; Psalm 42-43; Psalm 44; Psalm 51; Psalm 54; Psalm 55; Psalm 56; Psalm 57; Psalm 59, Psalm 60; Psalm 61; Psalm 63; Psalm 64; Psalm 69; Psalm 70; Psalm 71; Psalm 74; Psalm 77; Psalm 79; Psalm 80; Psalm 83; Psalm 85; Psalm 86; Psalm 88; Psalm 90; Psalm 94; Psalm 102; Psalm 109; Psalm 123; Psalm 126; Psalm 130; Psalm 134; Psalm 137; Psalm 140; Psalm 141; Psalm 142; Psalm 143; Psalm 144.

2. Psalms of thanksgiving describe a situation of distress and how God delivered the psalmist. The psalmist promises to fulfill vows made to God during the distress and invites the congregation to join in thanksgiving and praise to God. These psalms show us our need to acknowledge God’s work in our times of trouble and to witness to others of what God has done for us. 
Thanksgiving psalms are Psalm 9-10; Psalm 18; Psalm 30; Psalm 31; Psalm 32; Psalm 34; Psalm 66; Psalm 92; Psalm 107; Psalm 116; Psalm 118; Psalm 120; Psalm 124; Psalm 129; Psalm 138; Psalm 139.

3. Hymns lift the congregation’s praise to God, describing God’s greatness and majesty. In the hymn, worshipers invite one another to praise God and to provide reasons for such praise. 
These psalms are hymns: Psalm 8; Psalm 19; Psalm 29; Psalm 33; Psalm 65; Psalm 100; Psalm 103; Psalm 104; Psalm 105; Psalm 111; 113; Psalm 114; Psalm 117; Psalm 135; Psalm 136; Psalm 145; Psalm 146; Psalm 147; Psalm 148; Psalm 149; Psalm 150.

4. Wisdom psalms probe life’s mysteries to teach the congregation about itself and God. 
These include psalms Psalm 1; Psalm 14; Psalm 36; Psalm 37; Psalm 49; Psalm 53; Psalm 73; Psalm 78; Psalm 112; Psalm 119; Psalm 127; Psalm 128; Psalm 133.

5. Kingship psalms detail the role of the human king in God’s rule over His people. They also point ahead to the Messiah, who would inaugurate God’s kingdom. From them we learn to pray for and respect the role of government officials as well as praise God’s Messiah. 
These include Psalm 2; Psalm 18; Psalm 20; Psalm 21; Psalm 28; Psalm 45; Psalm 61; Psalm 63; Psalm 72; Psalm 89; Psalm 101; Psalm 110; Psalm 132.

6. Entrance ceremonies provide questions and answers to teach the expectations God has of His worshipers. Psalm 15 and Psalm 24 are entrance ceremonies.

7. Enthronement psalms praise Yahweh as the King enthroned over His universe. They include Psalm 47; Psalm 93; Psalm 96; Psalm 97; Psalm 98; Psalm 99.

8. Songs of Zion praise God indirectly by describing the Holy City where He has chosen to live among His people and be worshiped. They show God lives among His people to protect and direct their lives. 
These are Psalm 46; Psalm 48; Psalm 76; Psalm 84; Psalm 87; Psalm 122; Psalm 132.

9. Psalms of confidence express trust in God’s care for and leadership of His people. These appear in Psalm 4; Psalm 11; Psalm 16; Psalm 23; Psalm 27; Psalm 62; Psalm 125; Psalm 131.

10. Prophetic psalms announce God’s will to His worshiping people. These are Psalm 50; Psalm 52; Psalm 58; Psalm 81; Psalm 82; Psalm 91; Psalm 95.

11. Liturgical psalms describe activities and responses of God’s worshiping congregation. These appear in Psalm 67; Psalm 68; Psalm 75; Psalm 106; Psalm 108; Psalm 115; Psalm 121.

The psalms are the production of various authors. "Only a portion of the Book of Psalms claims David as its author. Other inspired poets in successive generations added now one now another contribution to the sacred collection, and thus in the wisdom of Providence it more completely reflects every phase of human emotion and circumstances than it otherwise could." But it is specially to David and his contemporaries that we owe this precious book. 

In the "titles" of the psalms, the genuineness of which there is no sufficient reason to doubt, 73 are ascribed to David. Peter and John #Ac 4:25 ascribe to him also the second psalm, which is one of the 48 that are anonymous.    About two-thirds of the whole collection have been ascribed to David.      Psalms 39, 62 and 77 are addressed to Jeduthun, to be sung after his manner or in his choir.    Psalms 50 and 73 are addressed to Asaph, as the master of his choir, to be sung in the worship of God. The "sons of Korah," who formed a leading part of the Kohathite singers #2Ch 20:19 were intrusted with the arranging and singing of Ps 27,244 and 88. In #Lu 24:44 the word "psalms" means the Hagiographa, i.e., the holy writings, one of the sections into which the Jews divided the Old Testament.     

None of the psalms can be proved to have been of a later date than the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, hence the whole collection extends over a period of about 1,000 years. There are in the New Testament 116 direct quotations from the Psalter. The Psalter is divided, after the analogy of the Pentateuch, into five books, each closing with a doxology or benediction:

1. The first book comprises the first 41 psalms, all of which are ascribed to David except 1, 2, 10, and 33 which, though anonymous, may also be ascribed to him.

2. Book second consists of the next 31 psalms (42-72) 18 of which are ascribed to David and 1 to Solomon (the 72nd). The rest are anonymous.

3. The third book contains 17 psalms (73-89) of which the 86th is ascribed to David, the 88th to Heman the Ezrahite, and the 89th to Ethan the Ezrahite.

4. The fourth book also contains 17 psalms (90-106) of which the 90th is ascribed to Moses, and the 101 and 103 to David.

5. The fifth book contains the remaining psalms, 44 in number. Of these, 15 are ascribed to David, and the 127 to Solomon. Ps 136 is generally called "the great hallel." But the Talmud includes also Ps 120-135. Ps 113-118 inclusive, constitute the "hallel" recited at the three great feasts, at the new moon, and on the eight days of the feast of dedication.

"It is presumed that these several collections were made at times of high religious life: the first, probably, near the close of David’s life; the second in the days of Solomon; the third by the singers of Jehoshaphat #2Ch 20:19 the fourth by the men of Hezekiah #2Ch 20:29,30,31 and the fifth in the days of Ezra."   The Mosaic ritual makes no provision for the service of song in the worship of God. David first taught the Church to sing the praises of the Lord. He first introduced into the ritual of the tabernacle music and song. Divers names are given to the psalms.

1. Some bear the Hebrew designation _shir_ (Gr. ode, a song). Thirteen have this title. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This title includes secular as well as sacred song.

2. Fifty-eight psalms bear the designation (Heb.) _mitsmor_ (Gr. psalmos, a psalm), a lyric ode, or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument.

3. Ps 145 and many others, have the designation (Heb.) _tehillah_ (Gr. hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God.

4. Six psalms (16, 56-60) have the title (Heb.) _michtam_ (q.v.).

5. Ps 7 and Hab 3 bear the title (Heb.) _shiggaion_ (q.v.).

Beloved, the eighth and youngest son of Jesse, a citizen of Bethlehem. His father seems to have been a man in humble life. His mother’s name is not recorded. Some think she was the Nahash of #2Sa 17:25 

As to his personal appearance, we only know that he was red-haired, with beautiful eyes and a fair face #1Sa 16:12 17:42 His early occupation was that of tending his father’s sheep on the uplands of Judah. From what we know of his after history, doubtless he frequently beguiled his time, when thus engaged, with his shepherd’s flute, while he drank in the many lessons taught him by the varied scenes spread around him. 

His first recorded exploits were his encounters with the wild beasts of the field. He mentions that with his own unaided hand he slew a lion and also a bear, when they came out against his flock, beating them to death in open conflict with his club #1Sa 17:34,35 

While David, in the freshness of ruddy youth, was thus engaged with his flocks, Samuel paid an unexpected visit to Bethlehem, having been guided thither by divine direction #1Sa 16:1-13 There he offered up sacrifice, and called the elders of Israel and Jesse’s family to the sacrificial meal. Among all who appeared before him he failed to discover the one he sought. David was sent for, and the prophet immediately recognized him as the chosen of God, chosen to succeed Saul, who was now departing from the ways of God, on the throne of the kingdom. He accordingly, in anticipation, poured on his head the anointing oil. David went back again to his shepherd life, but "the Spirit of the Lord came upon David from that day forward," and "the Spirit of the Lord departed from Saul" #1Sa 16:13,14 

Not long after this David was sent for to soothe with his harp the troubled spirit of Saul, who suffered from a strange melancholy dejection. He played before the king so skilfully that Saul was greatly cheered, and began to entertain great affection for the young shepherd. After this he went home to Bethlehem. But he soon again came into prominence. The armies of the Philistines and of Israel were in battle array in the valley of Elah, some 16 miles south-west of Bethlehem; and David was sent by his father with provisions for his three brothers, who were then fighting on the side of the king. 

On his arrival in the camp of Israel, David (now about twenty years of age) was made aware of the state of matters when the champion of the Philistines, Goliath of Gath, came forth to defy Israel. David took his sling, and with a well-trained aim threw a stone "out of the brook," which struck the giant’s forehead, so that he fell senseless to the ground. David then ran and slew him, and cut off his head with his own sword #1Sa 17:1ff. The result was a great victory to the Israelites, who pursued the Philistines to the gates of Gath and Ekron. 

David’s popularity consequent on this heroic exploit awakened Saul’s jealousy #1Sa 18:6-16 which he showed in various ways. He conceived a bitter hatred toward him, and by various stratagems sought his death #1Sa 18:1-30 The deep-laid plots of the enraged king, who could not fail to observe that David "prospered exceedingly," all proved futile, and only endeared the young hero the more to the people, and very specially to Jonathan, Saul’s son, between whom and David a life-long warm friendship was formed. 

A fugitive. To escape from the vengeance of Saul, David fled to Ramah #1Sa 19:12-18 to Samuel, who received him, and he dwelt among the sons of the prophets, who were there under Samuel’s training. It is supposed by some that the sixth, seventh, and eleventh Psalms were composed by him at this time. This place was only 3 miles from the residence of Saul, who soon discovered whither the fugitive had gone, and tried ineffectually to bring him back. Jonathan made a fruitless effort to bring his father to a better state of mind toward David #1Sa 20:1-34 who, being made aware of the fact, saw no hope of safety but in flight to a distance. 

We accordingly find him first at Nob #1Sa 21:1-9 and then at Gath, the chief city of the Philistines. The king of the Philistines would not admit him into his service, as he expected that he would, and David accordingly now betook himself to the stronghold of Adullam #1Sa 22:1-4 1Ch 12:8-18 Here in a short time 400 men gathered around him and acknowledged him as their leader. 

It was at this time that David, amid the harassment and perils of his position, cried, "Oh that one would give me drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem;" when three of his heroes broke through the lines of the Philistines and brought him the water for which he longed #2Sa 23:13-17 but which he would not drink. 

In his rage at the failure of all his efforts to seize David, Saul gave orders for the massacre of the entire priestly family at Nob, "persons who wore a linen ephod," to the number of eighty-five persons, who were put to death by Doeg the Edomite. The sad tidings of the massacre were brought to David by Abiathar, a son of Ahimelech, the only one who escaped. Comp. #Ps 52:1ff. 

Hearing that Keilah, a town on the western frontier, was harassed by the Philistines, David with his men relieved it #1Sa 23:1-14 and then, for fear of Saul, he fled to the strongholds in the "hill country" of Judah. Comp. #Ps 31:1ff. While encamped there, in the forest in the district of Ziph, he was visited by Jonathan, who spoke to him words of encouragement #1Sa 23:16-18 The two now parted never to meet again. 

Saul continued his pursuit of David, who narrowly escaped from him at this time, and fled to the crags and ravines of Engedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea #1Sa 23:29 Here Saul, who still pursued him with his army, narrowly escaped, through the generous forbearance of David, and was greatly affected by what David had done for him. He returned home from pursuing him, and David betook himself to Maon, where, with his 600 men, he maintained himself by contributions gathered from the district. Here occurred the incident connected with Nabal and his wife Abigail #1Sa 25:1ff. whom David married after Nabal’s death. 

Saul again went forth #1Sa 26:1ff. in pursuit of David, who had hid himself "in the hill Hachilah, which is before Jeshimon," in the wilderness of Ziph, and was a second time spared through his forbearance. He returned home, professing shame and penitence for the way in which he had treated David, and predicting his elevation to the throne. Fighting against Israel. Harassed by the necessity of moving from place to place through fear of Saul, David once more sought refuge among the Philistines #1Sa 27:1ff. He was welcomed by the king, who assigned him Ziklag as his residence. 

Here David lived among his followers for some time as an independent chief engaged in frequent war with the Amalekites and other tribes on the south of Judah. Achish summoned David with his men to join his army against Saul; but the lords of the Philistines were suspicious of David’s loyalty, and therefore he was sent back to Ziklag, which he found to his dismay may had been pillaged and burnt during his brief absence. David pursued after the raiders, the Amalekites, and completely routed them. 

On his return to Ziklag tidings reached him of Saul’s death #2Sa 1:1ff. An Amalekite brought Saul’s crown and bracelet and laid them at his feet. David and his men rent their clothes and mourned for Saul, who had been defeated in battle near Mount Gilboa. David composed a beautiful elegy, the most beautiful of all extant Hebrew odes, a "lamentation over Saul and over Jonathan his son" #2Sa 1:18-27 It bore the title of "The Bow," and was to be taught to the children, that the memory of Saul and Jonathan might be preserved among them. "Behold, it is written in the book of Jasher" (q.v.). 

David king over Judah. David and his men now set out for Hebron under divine direction #2Sa 2:1-4 There they were cordially welcomed, and he was at once anointed as king. He was now about thirty years of age. But his title to the throne was not undisputed. 

Abner took Ish-bosheth, Saul’s only remaining son, over the Jordan to Mahanaim, and there crowned him as king. Then began a civil war in Israel. The first encounter between the two opposing armies, led on the one side by Abner, and on the other by Joab, took place at the pool of Gibeon. It resulted in the defeat of Abner. 

Other encounters, however, between Israel and Judah followed #2Sa 3:1,5 but still success was on the side of David. For the space of seven and a half years David reigned in Hebron. Abner now sided with David, and sought to promote his advancement; but was treacherously put to death by Joab in revenge for his having slain his brother Asahel at Gibeon #2Sa 3:22-39 This was greatly to David’s regret. He mourned for the death of Abner. Shortly after this Ish-bosheth was also treacherously put to death by two Canaanites of Beeroth; and there being now no rival, David was anointed king over all Israel #2Sa 4:1-12 

David king over all Israel #2Sa 5:1-5 1Ch 11:1-3   The elders of Israel now repaired to Hebron and offered allegiance to David in name of all the people, among whom the greatest enthusiasm prevailed. He was anointed king over all Israel, and sought out a new seat of government, more suitable than Hebron, as the capital of his empire. 

At this time there was a Jebusite fortress, "the stronghold," on the hill of Zion, called also Jebus. This David took from the Jebusites, and made it Israel’s capital, and established here his residence, and afterwards built for himself a palace by the aid of Tyrian tradesmen. 

The Philistines, who had for some time observed a kind of truce, now made war against David; but were defeated in battle at a place afterwards called, in remembrance of the victory, Baal-perazim. Again they invaded the land, and were a second time routed by him. He thus delivered Israel from their enemies. 

David now resolved to bring up the ark of the covenant to his new capital #2Sa 6:1ff. It was in the house of Abinadab at Kirjath-jearim, about 7 miles from Jerusalem, where it had been for many years, from the time when the Philistines had sent it home #1Sa 6:1-7:1ff. In consequence of the death of Uzzah (for it was a divine ordinance that only the Levites should handle the ark,) #Nu 4:1ff. who had put forth his hand to steady the ark when the cart in which it was being conveyed shook by reason of the roughness of the road, David stayed the procession, and conveyed the ark into the house of Obed-edom, a Philistine from Gath. After three months David brought the ark from the house of Obed-edom up to Jerusalem. Comp. #Ps 24:1ff. Here it was placed in a new tent or tabernacle which David erected for the purpose. 

About seventy years had passed since it had stood in the tabernacle at Shiloh. The old tabernacle was now at Gibeah, at which Zadok ministered. David now #1Ch 16:1ff. carefully set in order all the ritual of divine worship at Jerusalem, along with Abiathar the high priest. A new religious era began. The service of praise was for the first time introduced into public worship.   Zion became henceforth "God’s holy hill." 

David’s wars. David now entered on a series of conquests which greatly extended and strengthened his kingdom #2Sa 8:1ff. In a few years the whole territory from the Euphrates to the river of Egypt, and from Gaza on the west to Thapsacus on the east, was under his sway #2Sa 8:3-13 10:1ff.  

David’s fall. He had now reached the height of his glory. He ruled over a vast empire, and his capital was enriched with the spoils of many lands. But in the midst of all this success he fell, and his character became stained with the sin of adultery #2Sa 11:2-27 It has been noted as characteristic of the Bible that while his military triumphs are recorded in a few verses, the sad story of his fall is given in detail, a story full of warning, and therefore recorded.   This crime, in the attempt to conceal it, led to anoter. He was guilty of murder. Uriah, whom he had foully wronged, an officer of the Gibborim, the corps of heros #2Sa 23:39 was, by his order, "set in the front of the hottest battle" at the siege of Rabbah, in order that he might be put to death. 

Nathan the prophet #2Sa 7:1-17 12:1-23 was sent by God to bring home his crimes to the conscience of the guilty monarch. He became a true penitent. He bitterly bewailed his sins before God. The thirty-second and fifty-first Psalms reveal the deep struggles of his soul, and his spiritual recovery.     

Bathsheba became his wife after Uriah’s death.   Her first-born son died, according to the word of the prophet.   She gave birth to a second son, whom David called Solomon (Peace), and who ultimately succeeded him on the throne #2Sa 12:24,25.    

After the successful termination of all his wars, David formed the idea of building a temple for the ark of God. This he was not permitted to carry into execution, because he had been a man of war.   God, however, sent Nathan to him with a gracious message #2Sa 7:1-16 On receiving it he went into the sanctuary, the tent where the ark was, and sat before the Lord, and poured out his heart in words of devout thanksgiving #2Sa 7:18-29.    The building of the temple was reserved for his son Solomon, who would be a man of peace #1Ch 22:9 28:3  

A cloudy evening. Hitherto David’s carrer had been one of great prosperity and success. Now cloudy and dark days came. His eldest son Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam of Jezreel, was guilty of a great and shameful crime #2Sa 13:1ff. This was the beginning of the disasters of his later years.    After two years Absalom terribly avenged the crime against Tamar, and put Amnon to death.   This brought sore trouble to David’s heart.   Absalom, afraid of the consequences of his guilt, fled to Geshur beyond Jordan, where he remained for three years, when he was brought back through the intrigue of Joab #2Sa 14:1ff.    

After this there fell upon the land the calamity of three years’ famine #2Sa 21:1-14 This was soon after followed by a pestilence, brought upon the land as a punishment for David’s sinful pride in numbering the people #2Sa 24:1ff. in which no fewer than 70,000 perished in the space of three days. 

Rebellion of Absalom.   The personal respect for David was sadly lowered by the incident of Bathsheba. There was a strong popular sentiment against the taking of the census, and the outburst of the plague in connection with it deepened the feeling of jealously that had begun to manifest itself among some of the tribes against David.   Absalom, taking full advantage of this state of things, gradually gained over the people, and at length openly rebelled against his father, and usurped the throne. Ahithophel was Absalom’s chief counsellor. 

The revolt began in Hebron, the capital of Judah. Absalom was there proclaimed king.    David was now in imminent danger, and he left Jerusalem #2Sa 15:13-20 and once more became a fugitive. It was a momentous day in Israel.   The incidents of it are recorded with a fulness of detail greater than of any other day in Old Testament history.   David fled with his followers to Mahanarm, on the east of Jordan. An unnatural civil war broke out.   After a few weeks the rival armies were mustered and organized. They met in hostile array at the wood of Ephraim #2Sa 18:1-8 Absalom’s army was defeated, and himself put to death by the hand of Joab #2Sa 18:9-18. The tidings of the death of his rebellious son filled the heart of David with the most poignant grief.   He "went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept" #2Sa 18:33 giving utterance to the heart-broken cry, "Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" 

Peace was now restored, and David returned to Jerusalem and resumed the direction of affairs. An unhappy dispute arose between the men of Judah and the men of Israel #2Sa 19:41-43 Sheba, a Benjamite, headed a revolt of the men of Israel. He was pursued to Abelbeth-maachah, and was there put to death, and so the revolt came to an end. 

The end. After the suppression of the rebellion of Absalom and that of Sheba, ten comparatively peaceful years of David’s life passed away. During those years he seems to have been principally engaged in accumulating treasures of every kind for the great temple at Jerusalem, which it was reserved to his successor to build #1Ch 22:1ff. #1Ch 28:1ff. a house which was to be "exceeding magnifical, of fame and of glory throughout all countries" #1Ch 22:5 The exciting and laborious life he had spent, and the dangers and trials through which he had passed, had left him an enfeebled man, prematurely old. It became apparent that his life was now drawing to its close. 

A new palace conspiracy broke out as to who should be his successor. Joab favoured Adonijah. The chiefs of his party met at the "Fuller’s spring," in the valley of Kidron, to proclaim him king; but Nathan hastened on a decision on the part of David in favour of Solomon, and so the aim of Adonijah’s party failed.    Solomon was brought to Jerusalem, and was anointed king and seated on his father’s throne #1Ki 1:11-53  

David’s last words are a grand utterance, revealing his unfailing faith in God, and his joyful confidence in his gracious covenant promises #2Sa 23:1-7    After a reign of forty years and six months #2Sa 5:5 1Ch 3:4 David died (B.C. 1015) at the age of seventy years, "and was buried in the city of David."    His tomb is still pointed out on Mount Zion. Both in his prophetical and in his regal character David was a type of the Messiah #1Sa 16:13  

The book of Psalms commonly bears the title of the "Psalms of David," from the circumstance that he was the largest contributor (about eighty psalms) to the collection.    "The greatness of David was felt when he was gone.    He had lived in harmony with both the priesthood and the prophets; a sure sign that the spirit of his government had been throughly loyal to the higher aims of the theocracy.    The nation had not been oppressed by him, but had been left in the free enjoyment of its ancient liberties. As far as his power went he had striven to act justly to all #2Sa 8:15 His weak indulgence to his sons, and his own great sin besides, had been bitterly atoned, and were forgotten at his death in the remembrance of his long-tried worth. 

He had reigned thirty-three years in Jerusalem and seven and a half at Hebron #2Sa 5:5     Israel at his accession had reached the lowest point of national depression; its new-born unity rudely dissolved; its territory assailed by the Philistines. But he had left it an imperial power, with dominions like those of Egypt or Assyria. The sceptre of Solomon was already, before his father’s death, owned from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and from the Orontes to the Red Sea.," Geikie’s Hours etc., iii.

A trite maxim; a similitude; a parable. The Hebrew word thus rendered (mashal) has a wide signification. It comes from a root meaning "to be like," "parable." Rendered "proverb" in #Isa 14:4 Hab 2:6 "dark saying" in #Ps 49:4 Nu 12:8 Ahab’s defiant words in answer to the insolent demands of Benhadad, "Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast himself as he that putteth it off," is a well known instance of a proverbial saying #1Ki 20:11

A collection of moral and philosophical maxims of a wide range of subjects presented in a poetic form. This book sets forth the "philosophy of practical life. It is the sign to us that the Bible does not despise common sense and discretion. It impresses upon us in the most forcible manner the value of intelligence and prudence and of a good education. The whole strength of the Hebrew language and of the sacred authority of the book is thrown upon these homely truths. It deals, too, in that refined, discriminating, careful view of the finer shades of human character so often overlooked by theologians, but so necessary to any true estimate of human life" (Stanley’s Jewish Church). As to the origin of this book, "it is probable that Solomon gathered and recast many proverbs which sprang from human experience in preceeding ages and were floating past him on the tide of time, and that he also elaborated many new ones from the material of his own experience. Towards the close of the book, indeed, are preserved some of Solomon’s own sayings that seem to have fallen from his lips in later life and been gathered by other hands’ (Arnot’s Laws from Heaven, etc.) This book is usually divided into three parts:

1. Consisting of (ch. 1-9) which contain an exhibition of wisdom as the highest good.

2. Consisting of ch. (10-24)

3. Containing proverbs of Solomon "which the men of Hezekiah, the king of Judah, collected" (ch. 25-29)

These are followed by two supplements,

1. "The words of Agur" (ch. 30) and

2. "The words of king Lemuel" (ch. 31) Solomon is said to have written three thousand proverbs, and those contained in this book may be a selection from these #1Ki 4:32 In the New Testament there are thirty-five direct quotations from this book or allusions to it.

The Greek rendering of the Hebrew _Koheleth_, which means "Preacher." The old and traditional view of the authorship of this book attributes it to Solomon. This view can be satisfactorily maintained, though others date it from the Captivity. The writer represents himself implicitly as Solomon #Ec 1:12 It has been appropriately styled The Confession of King Solomon. "The writer is a man who has sinned in giving way to selfishness and sensuality, who has paid the penalty of that sin in satiety and weariness of life, but who has through all this been under the discipline of a divine education, and has learned from it the lesson which God meant to teach him." "The writer concludes by pointing out that the secret of a true life is that a man should consecrate the vigour of his youth to God." The key-note of the book is sounded in ch. #Ec 1:2 "Vanity of vanities! saith the Preacher, Vanity of vanities! all is vanity!" i.e., all man’s efforts to find happiness apart from God are without result.

Peaceful, (Heb. Shelomoh), David’s second son by Bathsheba, i.e., the first after their legal marriage #2Sa 12:1ff. He was probably born about B.C. 1035 #1Ch 22:5 29:1  

He succeeded his father on the throne in early manhood, probably about sixteen or eighteen years of age. Nathan, to whom his education was intrusted, called him Jedidiah, i.e., "beloved of the Lord" #2Sa 12:24,25 He was the first king of Israel "born in the purple." His father chose him as his successor, passing over the claims of his elder sons: "Assuredly Solomon my son shall reign after me." His history is recorded in #1Ki 11ff. and #2Ch 1:1ff. His elevation to the throne took place before his father’s death, and was hastened on mainly by Nathan and Bathsheba, in consequence of the rebellion of Adonijah #1Ki 1:5-40  

During his long reign of forty years the Hebrew monarchy gained its highest splendour. This period has well been called the "Augustan age" of the Jewish annals.   The first half of his reign was, however, by far the brighter and more prosperous; the latter half was clouded by the idolatries into which he fell, mainly from his heathen intermarriages #1Ki 11:1-8 14:21,31  

Before his death David gave parting instructions to his son #1Ki 2:1-9 1Ch 22:7-16, 28:1ff. As soon as he had settled himself in his kingdom, and arranged the affairs of his extensive empire, he entered into an alliance with Egypt by the marriage of the daughter of Pharaoh #1Ki 3:1 of whom, however, nothing further is recorded. He surrounded himself with all the luxuries and the external grandeur of an Eastern monarch, and his government prospered. He entered into an alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, who in many ways greatly assisted him in his numerous undertakings.    

For some years before his death David was engaged in the active work of collecting materials #1Ch 29:6-9 2Ch 2:3-7 for building a temple in Jerusalem as a permanent abode for the ark of the covenant. He was not permitted to build the house of God #1Ch 22:8 that honour was reserved to his son Solomon.     

After the completion of the temple, Solomon engaged in the erection of many other buildings of importance in Jerusalem and in other parts of his kingdom. For the long space of thirteen years he was engaged in the erection of a royal palace on Ophel #1Ki 7:1-12 It was 100 cubits long, 50 broad, and 30 high. Its lofty roof was supported by forty-five cedar pillars, so that the hall was like a forest of cedar wood, and hence probably it received the name of "The House of the Forest of Lebanon." In front of this "house" was another building, which was called the Porch of Pillars, and in front of this again was the "Hall of Judgment," or Throne-room #1Ki 7:7 10:18-20 2Ch 9:17-19 "the King’s Gate," where he administered justice and gave audience to his people. This palace was a building of great magnificence and beauty. A portion of it was set apart as the residence of the queen consort, the daughter of Pharaoh. From the palace there was a private staircase of red and scented sandal wood which led up to the temple. Solomon also constructed great works for the purpose of securing a plentiful supply of water for the city #Ec 2:4-6  

He then built Millo (LXX., "Acra") for the defence of the city, completing a line of ramparts around it #1Ki 9:15,24 11:27 He erected also many other fortifications for the defence of his kingdom at various points where it was exposed to the assault of enemies #1Ki 9:15-19 2Ch 8:2-6 Among his great undertakings must also be mentioned the building of Tadmor (q.v.) in the wilderness as a commercial depot, as well as a military outpost. 

During his reign Palestine enjoyed great commercial prosperity. Extensive traffic was carried on by land with Tyre and Egypt and Arabia, and by sea with Spain and India and the coasts of Africa, by which Solomon accumulated vast stores of wealth and of the produce of all nations #1Ki 9:26-28 10:11,12 2Ch 8:17,18 9:21  

This was the "golden age" of Israel. The royal magnificence and splendour of Solomon’s court were unrivalled.    He had seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines, an evidence at once of his pride, his wealth, and his sensuality.   The maintenance of his household involved immense expenditure. The provision required for one day was "thirty measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep, beside harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl" #1Ki 4:22,23 Solomon’s reign was not only a period of great material prosperity, but was equally remarkable for its intellectual activity. 

He was the leader of his people also in this uprising amongst them of new intellectual life. "He spake three thousand proverbs: and his songs were a thousand and five. And he spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall: he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes" #1Ki 4:32,33  

His fame was spread abroad through all lands, and men came from far and near "to hear the wisdom of Solomon." Among others thus attracted to Jerusalem was "the queen of the south" #Mt 12:42 the queen of Sheba, a country in Arabia Felix. "Deep, indeed, must have been her yearning, and great his fame, which induced a secluded Arabian queen to break through the immemorial custom of her dreamy land, and to put forth the energy required for braving the burdens and perils of so long a journey across a wilderness. Yet this she undertook, and carried it out with safety." #1Ki 10:1-13 #2Ch 9:1-12 She was filled with amazement by all she saw and heard: "there was no more spirit in her." After an interchange of presents she returned to her native land. 

But that golden age of Jewish history passed away. The bright day of Solomon’s glory ended in clouds and darkness. His decline and fall from his high estate is a sad record.    Chief among the causes of his decline were his polygamy and his great wealth.    "As he grew older he spent more of his time among his favourites. The idle king living among these idle women, for 1,000 women, with all their idle and mischievous attendants, filled the palaces and pleasure-houses which he had built #1Ki 11:3 learned first to tolerate and then to imitate their heathenish ways. He did not, indeed, cease to believe in the God of Israel with his mind.    He did not cease to offer the usual sacrifices in the temple at the great feasts. But his heart was not right with God; his worship became merely formal; his soul, left empty by the dying out of true religious fervour, sought to be filled with any religious excitement which offered itself. 

Now for the first time a worship was publicly set up amongst the people of the Lord which was not simply irregular or forbidden, like that of Gideon #Jud 8:27 or the Danites #Jud 18:30,31 but was downright idolatrous." #1Ki 11:7 2Ki 23:13    This brought upon him the divine displeasure.    His enemies prevailed against him #1Ki 11:14-22,23-25,26-40 and one judgment after another fell upon the land.   And now the end of all came, and he died, after a reign of forty years, and was buried in the city of David, and "with him was buried the short-lived glory and unity of Israel." 

"He leaves behind him but one weak and worthless son, to dismember his kingdom and disgrace his name." "The kingdom of Solomon," says Rawlinson, "is one of the most striking facts in the Biblical history. A petty nation, which for hundreds of years has with difficulty maintained a separate existence in the midst of warlike tribes, each of which has in turn exercised dominion over it and oppressed it, is suddenly raised by the genius of a soldier-monarch to glory and greatness. An empire is established which extends from the Euphrates to the borders of Egypt, a distance of 450 miles; and this empire, rapidly constructed, enters almost immediately on a period of peace which lasts for half a century. 

Wealth, grandeur, architectural magnificence, artistic excellence, commercial enterprise, a position of dignity among the great nations of the earth, are enjoyed during this space, at the end of which there is a sudden collapse. The ruling nation is split in twain, the subject-races fall off, the pre-eminence lately gained being wholly lost, the scene of struggle, strife, oppression, recovery, inglorious submission, and desperate effort, re-commences.," Historical Illustrations.

Called also, after the Vulgate, the "Canticles." It is the "song of songs" #So 1:1 as being the finest and most precious of its kind; the noblest song, "das Hohelied," as Luther calls it. The Solomonic authorship of this book has been called in question, but evidences, both internal and external, fairly establish the traditional view that it is the product of Solomon’s pen. It is an allegorical poem setting forth the mutual love of Christ and the Church, under the emblem of the bridegroom and the bride. (Compare) #Mt 9:15 Joh 3:29 #Eph 5:23,27,29 Re 19:7-9 21:2,9 22:17 Compare also #Ps 45:1ff. #Isa 54:4-6 62:4,5 Jer 2:2 3:1,20 Eze 16:1ff. #Ho 2:16,19,20

Contents:

Author and Date
Canon and Interpretation

SONG OF SOLOMON, BOOK OF Collection of romantic poetry comprising the twenty-second book of the English Old Testament. The Hebrew title, "Solomon’s Song of Songs," means that this is the best of songs and that it in some way concerns Solomon.

Author and Date

While the title appears to name Solomon as the author, the Hebrew phrase can also mean for or about Solomon. Solomon or "king" is mentioned in the book several times (Song 1:1; Song 1:4-5; Song 1:12; Song 3:7; Song 3:9; Song 3:11; Song 7:5; Song 8:11-12), but scholars remain uncertain about its author. An ancient rabbinic tradition (Baba Bathra 15a) attributes the Song to Hezekiah and his scribes (compare Proverbs 25:1).

Similarly, it is hard to establish the date of the book from internal evidence. Some scholars argue on linguistic grounds for authorship much later than Solomon. Such grounds include the use of expressions akin to Aramaic and the presence of certain foreign loanwords (Persian: pardes = "orchard," Song 4:13; ’appiryon from Greek phoreion = "carriage" or [by way of Aramaic] "canopied bed," Song 3:9). Others argue that such linguistic usages and borrowings can go back to the time of Solomon or merely reflect the date of the book’s final editing.

Canon and Interpretation

Because of its erotic language and the difficulty of its interpretation, the rabbis questioned the place of the Song of Solomon in the canon. The positive resolution of that debate is reflected in the famous declaration of Rabbi Akiva, "The whole world is not worth the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; all the Writings are holy, but the Song of Songs is the holy of holies."

The problems of the book’s place in the canon and its interpretation are closely related. Under the influence of Greek views, which denigrated the body, and with the loss of a biblical view of the created goodness of the body and human love, many interpreters felt compelled to find in the Song an allegory of sacred love between God and Israel, Christ and the church, or Christ and the soul. With few exceptions, allegorical readings of the Song have prevailed for most of church history.

In the modern period, most scholars have returned to a literal reading of the Song. Conflict remains even about the literal sense of the text. Some compare Egyptian and Mesopotamian poems and see the Song as a mere collection of secular love ditties. Another view tries to see it as an adaptation of pagan fertility rituals. (This view is in reality a modern allegorical reading.) Others see the Song as a drama in which the pure love of the Shulammite maid and her shepherd prevails over Solomon’s callous attempt to bring the girl into his harem. This view tries to do justice to the alteration of speakers in the Song in its various dialogues. (These shifts are indicated in Hebrew by shifts in grammatical person and number.)

A recent, promising approach is aware of parallels to Egyptian love poetry but shows that the Song itself gives expression to a uniquely biblical perspective on sexual love. While containing a number of smaller love poems, the Song is unified by patterns of dialogue, repetition, the use of catch words, and above all, a consistent vision of love. Like Genesis 2:23-25, the Song celebrates God’s gift of bodily love between man and woman. Here the Creator’s wisdom and bounty are displayed. Thus, the Song is best taken as an example of Israel’s wisdom poetry (compare Proverbs 5:15-20; Proverbs 6:24-29; Proverbs 7:6-27; Proverbs 30:18-20). Like many Psalms which praise God and also teach, the Song’s main purpose is to celebrate rather than to instruct. Like music, it tends to joy rather than learning. Yet one can overhear in it biblical wisdom on love. "Love is as strong as death. . . . Many waters cannot quench love. . . . If one were to give all the wealth of his house for love, it would be utterly scorned" (Song 8:6-7 NIV). Moreover, there is a right time and place for love: "Daughters of Jerusalem, I charge you. . . Do not arouse or awaken love until it so desires" (Song 3:5 NIV). In these poems love is portrayed in its power and splendor, its freshness and devotion to the beloved. Love in all its variety parades before us: moments of union and separation, ecstacy and anguish, longing and fulfillment.

Finally, a certain validity remains in the long history of interpretation, which saw in the pure love of the Song a reflection of divine-human love (compare Ephes. 5:21-32; Song 3:6-11; and the messianic typology of Psalm 45.) Nonetheless, this parallel should not be pushed to the point of allegorizing details of the poem.